The Germans were the first to pioneer the assault rifle concept, during World War II, based upon research that showed that most firefights happen within 400 meters and that contemporary rifles were over-powered for most small arms combat.[19][20][21][22] The Germans sought to develop a select-fire intermediate powered rifle combining the firepower of a submachine gun with the accuracy and range of a rifle.[23][24][25][21] This was done by shortening the standard 7.92x57mm cartridge to 7.92x33mm and giving it a lighter 125 grain bullet, that limited range but allowed for more controllable automatic fire.[26][27][28][21] The result was the Sturmgewehr 44.[21][29][30][31]
Like the Germans, the Soviets were influenced by experience showing most combat happens within 400 meters and that their soldiers were consistently outgunned by heavily armed German troops, especially those armed with the Sturmgewehr 44 assault rifles.[32][33] The Soviets were so impressed with the Sturmgewehr 44, that after World War II, they held a design competition to develop an assault rifle of their own.[34][35] The winner was the AK-47.[21] It was finalized, adopted and entered widespread service in the Soviet army in the early 1950s.[33] Its firepower, ease of use, low production costs, and reliability was perfectly suited for the Red Army's new mobile warfare doctrines.[33] The AK-47 was widely supplied or sold to nations allied with the USSR and the blueprints were shared with several friendly nations (the People's Republic of China standing out among these).[33]
The U.S. Army was influenced by combat experience with semi-automatic weapons such as the M1 Garand and M1 carbine, which enjoyed a significant advantage over enemies armed primarily with bolt-action rifles.[36] Although U.S. Army studies of World War II combat accounts had very similar results to that of the Germans and Soviets, the U.S. Army maintained its traditional views and preference for powerful accurate semi-automatic rifles.[21][37]
After World War II, the United States military started looking for a single automatic rifle to replace the M1 Garand, M1/M2 Carbines,M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle, M3 "Grease Gun" and Thompson submachine gun.[21] Early experiments with select-fire versions of the M1 Garand proved disappointing. Also, combat experience suggested that the .30 Carbine round was underpowered.[38]American weapons designers reached the same conclusion as the Germans and Soviets: an intermediate round was necessary, and recommended a small caliber, high velocity cartridge.[39]
However, senior American commanders having faced fanatical enemies and experienced major logistical problems during WWII and the Korean War,[40][41][42][43][44] insisted that a single powerful .30 caliber cartridge be developed, that could not only be used by the new automatic rifle, but by the new general purpose machine gun (GPMG) in concurrent development.[45][46] This culminated in the development of the 7.62x51 NATO cartridge and the M14 rifle[45] which was basically an improved select-fire M1 Garand with a 20 round magazine.[47] The U.S. also adopted the M60 GPMG.[45] Its NATO partners adopted the FN FAL and HK G3 rifles, as well as the FN MAG and Rheinmetall MG3 GPMGs.
The first confrontations between the AK-47 and the M14 came in the early part of the Vietnam War. Battlefield reports indicated that the M14 was uncontrollable in full-auto and that soldiers could not carry enough ammo to maintain fire superiority over the AK-47.[48] A replacement was needed: A medium between the traditional preference for powerful accurate rifles such as the M14, and the lightweight firepower of the M2 Carbine.
As a result, the Army was forced to reconsider a 1957 request by General Willard G. Wyman, commander of the U.S. Continental Army Command (CONARC) to develop a .223 caliber (5.56 mm) select-fire rifle weighing 6 lbs (2.7 kg) when loaded with a 20 round magazine.[21] The 5.56mm round had to penetrate a standard U.S. helmet at 500 yards (460 meters) and retain a velocity in excess of the speed of sound, while matching or exceeding the wounding ability of the .30 Carbine cartridge.[49]
This request ultimately resulted in the development of a scaled-down version of the Armalite AR-10, called AR-15 rifle.[50][51][52] However, despite overwhelming evidence that the AR-15 could bring more firepower to bear than the M14, the Army opposed the adoption of the new rifle.[52] In January 1963, Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara concluded that the AR-15 was the superior weapon system and ordered a halt to M14 production.[52] At the time, the AR-15 was the only rifle available that could fulfill the requirement of a universal infantry weapon for issue to all services. After modifications (Most notably: the charging handle was re-located from under the carrying handle like AR-10 to the rear of the receiver),[51] the new redesigned rifle was subsequently adopted as the M16.[52][53]
[edit]Manufacturing philosophies
[edit]M16
Main article: M16 rifle
The M16 was designed above all else to be a lightweight assault rifle, and to fire a new lightweight, high velocity small caliber cartridge to allow the soldier to carry more ammunition.[52] It was designed to be manufactured with the extensive use of aluminium and synthetic materials by state of the art Computer Numerical Control (CNC) automated machinery.[52]
The M16 continues to benefit from every advance in the CNC field,[54] which allows more and more small manufacturers to mass produce M16s and semi-automatic AR-15 type rifles.[55][56][57][notes 1] The M16's aluminum lower receiver may be forged or cast,[58] or made from a variety of other metallic alloys,[59][60] composites[61] and polymers.[62] If necessary, it can be machined from a billet of steel[63] and fitted with wooden furniture.[64] This makes the M16 ideal for market economy production, spread among many small manufacturers around the country, using a variety of materials and manufacturing methods; this ensures it would be nearly impossible to disrupt U.S. M16 production in the case of a major conflict. The M16 is a Modular Weapon System.[65] It is easy to assemble, modify and repair using a few simple hand tools, and a flat surface to work on.
As of 2012, the United States military buys M4 Carbines for $673 (USD) per unit.[66] Approximately 8 million M16 type rifles have been made worldwide.[12]
[edit]AK-47
Main article: AK-47
The AK-47 was designed to be a simple, reliable automatic rifle that could be manufactured quickly and cheaply, using mass production methods that were state of the art in the Soviet Union during the late 1940s. The AK-47's barrel and bolt were milled out of a steel billetand hard chromed. Its receiver was originally designed to be stamped from sheet metal with a milled trunnion insert. However, early production receivers were milled in one piece. In 1959, the sheet metal stamping process was perfected, simplifying manufacture and reducing the weight of the rifle from 4.3 kg (9.5 lb) to 3.14 kg (6.9 lb).[67] The stock was simply made out of wood, which was a non-strategic material, and perfectly fits the Soviet manufacturing philosophy, where large manufacturing plants could manufacture basic weapons in very large quantities.
Over time, AK-47 descendants have been simplified through the use of spot welding and by further reducing the number of machined parts. Currently the Izhevsk factory can produce around 24,000 units a day. Because of its stamped-steel design it is not possible to manufacture the AK-47 series efficiently in small plants, due to the large amount of metal stamping equipment needed for mass production. However, the milled-steel AK-47 has spawned a cottage industry of sorts and has been copied and manufactured (one gun at a time) in small shops around the world.[68][69]
As of 2011, Izhmash sells the AK-103 at a government price of $150 to $160 (USD) per unit.[13] There are places around the world where an AK-47 type rifle can be purchased on the Black Market "...for as little as $6, or traded for a chicken or a sack of grain."[70][71] Approximately 100 million AK-47 type rifles have been made worldwide.[11][72]
[edit]Comparison of characteristics
[edit]Size and weight
Fixed buttstock models
A Vietnam era M16A1 has a 50.8 cm (20.0 in) barrel, is 26.7 cm (10.5 in) in height (with magazine), 99 cm (39 in) long and weighs 3.6 kg (7.9 lb) with a loaded 30 round magazine.[1] The later models of the M16 weighed more than the original with the addition of heavier (and more accurate) barrels and more rugged components. The M16A2, for example, weighs 3.85 kg (8.5 lb) loaded. A loaded 30 round, M16 magazine weighs .45 kg (0.99 lb) and is made of aluminum.
A Vietnam era AK-47 has a 41.5 cm (16.3 in) barrel, is 26.7 cm (10.5 in) in height (with magazine), 87 cm (34 in) long and weighs 5.22 kg (11.5 lb) with a loaded 30 round magazine. A loaded Vietnam era 30 round AK-47 magazine weighs .92 kg (2.0 lb) and is made of steel.[73] The AK-47 versions in use today are of the lighter AKM variety and weigh 3.92 kg (8.6 lb) loaded.[74] A loaded current issue 30 round magazine is lighter, weighing .80 kg (1.8 lb), because it is made of a steel-reinforced plastic.[74]
Earlier versions of the AK-47 used wood furniture, the type and density of which causes the AK-47s weight to vary. Whereas, the M16 and current models of the AK-47 use synthetic materials, which have consistent weights.
Collapsible buttstock models
A current issue M4 carbine (M16) has a 36.8 cm (14.5 in) barrel, is 26.7 cm (10.5 in) in height (with magazine), 83.8 cm (33.0 in) long with the stock extended and 75.6 cm (29.8 in) with the stock retracted. It weighs 3.33 kg (7.3 lb) with a loaded 30 round magazine.
A current issue AK-103 (AK-47) has a 41.5 cm (16.3 in) barrel, is 26.7 cm (10.5 in) in height (with magazine), 94.3 cm (37.1 in) long with the stock extended and 70.5 cm (27.8 in) with the stock folded, and weighs 4.1 kg (9.0 lb) with a loaded 30 round steel-reinforced plastic magazine.[75]
[edit]Controls
| M16 | AK-47 |
|---|---|
| Fire selector | |
| The fire selector is located on the left side of the rifle just above the pistol grip and is rotated by the shooter's right thumb. When the selector points forward = safe, up = semi-auto and backward = full-auto or burst. To use, the selector is rotated 90 degrees clockwise (down and forward) into the semi-auto position and then rotated an additional 90 degrees clockwise (forward and up) into the full-auto or burst position. To return to safe the selector is then rotated 180 degrees counter-clockwise (down, backward and up). Some M16 type rifles also have an ambidextrous fire selector on the right side of the receiver, designed to be operated by a left-handed shooter's thumb. This selector mirrors its opposite and functions as describe above. | The fire selector is a large lever located on the right side of the rifle, it acts as a dust-cover and prevents the charging handle from being pulled fully to the rear when it is on safe. It is operated by the shooter's right fore-fingers and it has 3 settings: up = safe, center = full-auto and down = semi-auto. The reason for this is, under stress a soldier will push the selector lever down with considerable force bypassing the full-auto stage and setting the rifle to semi-auto. To set the AK-47 to full-auto requires the deliberate action of centering the selector lever.[76] Some AK-47 type rifles also have a small vertical selector lever on the left side of the receiver just above the pistol grip.[77] This lever is operated by the shooter's right thumb and has three settings: forward = safe, center = full-auto and backwards = semi-auto.[78] |
| Charging handle | |
| The charging handle is located on top of the receiver, below and to the rear of the rear-sight/carrying-handle. To chamber, simply insert a loaded magazine straight into the magazine well, then pull the cocking handle back and release. | The charging handle is located on the right side of the receiver. To chamber, simply rock a loaded magazine into the magazine well in a forward to back motion, then pull the cocking handle back and release. |
| Magazine release | |
| The magazine release is a push button, located on the right side of the receiver in front of the trigger. To reload, the magazine release is pushed in, the empty magazine falls out and a loaded magazine is then inserted straight into the magazine well. | The magazine release lever is located directly in front of the trigger. To reload push the magazine release lever forward, the empty magazine is removed and a loaded magazine is then rocked into the magazine well in a forward to back motion. |
| Bolt-stop/release | |
| The bolt-stop/release is located on the left side of the receiver and the bolt-carrier-assembly locks back after the last shot. After reloading, the bolt-stop is pushed, the bolt-carrier-assembly is released, and the rifle is chambered and ready to fire. | Does not have a bolt-stop/release and does not lock back on the last shot. After reloading, simply pull back and release the charging handle, and the rifle is chambered and ready to fire. |
| Forward-assist | |
| The M16A1 and later models have a separate forward-assist on the right side to the rear of the receiver. To use...push it forward. | The charging handle also acts as a forward assist. To use...push it forward. |
| Dust cover | |
| Has a spring-loaded dust-cover, which opens when the rifle is fired or chambered. The dust-cover must be closed manually. | The fire selector doubles as a dust cover when set to "safe". |
[edit]Sights
The M16 has a 500mm (19.75 inches) sight radius.[9] The M16 uses an L-type flip, aperture rear sight and it is adjustable with two setting, 0 to 300 meters and 300 to 400 meters.[5]The front sight is a post adjustable for elevation in the field. The rear sight can be adjusted in the field for windage. The sights can be adjusted with a bullet tip and soldiers are trained to zero their own rifles. The sight picture is the same as the M14, M1 Garand, M1 Carbine and the M1917 Enfield. The M16 also has a "Low Light Level Sight System", which includes a front sight post with a small glass vial of (glow-in-the-dark) radioactive Tritium H3 and a larger aperture rear sight.[79] The M16 can mount a scope on the carrying handle. With the advent of the M16A2, a new fully adjustable rear sight was added, allowing the rear sight to be dialed in for specific range settings between 300 and 800 meters and to allow windage adjustments without the need of a tool or cartridge.[80] Modern versions of the M16 use a Picatinny rail which allow for the use of various scopes and sighting devices. The current United States Army and Air Force issue M4 Carbine comes with the M68 Close Combat Optic and Back-up Iron Sight.[81][82] The United States Marine Corps uses the ACOG Rifle Combat Optic[83][84] and the United States Navy uses EOTech Holographic Weapon Sight.[85]
The AK-47 has a 378mm (14.88 inches) sight radius.[4] The AK-47 uses a notched rear tangent iron sight, it is adjustable and is calibrated in hundreds from 100 to 800 meters (100 to 1000 meters for AKM models).[86] The front sight is a post adjustable for elevation in the field. Windage adjustment is done by the armory before issue. The "fixed" battle setting can be used for all ranges up to 300 meters.[86][87] This "point-blank range" setting marked "П",[87] allows the shooter to fire at close range targets without adjusting the sights. Longer range settings are intended for area suppression. These settings mirror the Mosin-Nagant and SKS rifles which the AK-47 replaced. All current AK-47s (100 series), have a front sight with a flip-up luminous dot that is calibrated at 50 meters, for improved night fighting.[86] They also have a side rail for mounting a variety of scopes and sighting devices, such as the PSO-1 Optical Sniper Sight.[88] However, their side folding stocks cannot be folded with the optics mounted.[89]
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[edit]Ammunition
A brief comparison between cartridges reveals that the M16's lighter, higher-velocity 5.56x45mm cartridge has much better long range accuracy, and that the AK-47's heavier7.62x39mm cartridge has much better penetration.[37]
The newer M16 models are more accurate than their predecessors and are capable of shooting 1–3 inch groups at 100 yards.[96] Curiously, the newer stamped steel receiver AKM models are actually less accurate than their predecessors.[96] "There are advantages and disadvantages in both forged/milled receivers and stamped receivers. Milled/Forged Receivers are much more rigid, flexing less as the rifle is fired thus not hindering accuracy as much as stamped receivers. Stamped receivers on the other hand are a bit more rugged since it has some give in it and have less chances of having metal fatigue under heavy usage."[96] As a result, the milled AK-47's are capable of shooting 3–5 inch groups at 100 yards, whereas the stamped AKM's are capable of shooting 4–6 inch groups at 100 yards.[96]The M16 has always enjoyed a reputation for excellent accuracy.[92][93] Its light recoil, high-velocity and flat trajectory allow shooters to take head shots out to 300 meters.[92] "In Fallujah, Marines with ACOG-equipped M16A4s created a stir by taking so many head shots that until the wounds were closely examined, some observers thought the insurgents had been executed."[94] Whereas, the AK-47's accuracy has always been considered to be "good enough."[95][93]
The AK-47's heavier 7.62x39mm round has superior penetration when compared to the M16's lighter 5.56x45mm round and is better in circumstances where a soldier has to shoot through heavy foliage, walls or a common vehicle's metal body and into an opponent attempting to use these things as cover. The 7.62x39mm M43 projectile does not generally fragment and has an unusual tendency to remain intact even after making contact with bone. The 7.62x39mm round produces significant wounding in cases where the bullet tumbles in tissue,[97] but produces relatively minor wounds in cases where the bullet exits before beginning to yaw.[98][99] In the absence of yaw, the M43 round can pencil through tissue with relatively little injury.[100]
In March 1970, the U.S. recommended that all NATO forces adopt the 5.56x45mm cartridge.[103] This shift represented a change in the philosophy of the military's long-held position about caliber size. By the middle of the 1970s, other armies were looking at M16-style weapons. A NATO standardization effort soon started and tests of various rounds were carried out starting in 1977.[103] The U.S. offered the 5.56x45mm M193 round, but there were concerns about its penetration in the face of the wider introduction of body armor.[21] In the end the Belgian 5.56x45mm SS109 round was chosen (STANAG 4172) in October 1980.[103] The SS109 round was based on the U.S. cartridge but included a new stronger, heavier, 62 grain bullet design, with better long range performance and improve penetration (specifically, to consistently penetrate the side of a steel helmet at 600 meters).[21] Due to its design and lower muzzle velocity (about 3110 ft/s)[9] the Belgian SS109 round is considered more humane because it is less likely to fragment than the U.S. M193 round.[102] The NATO 5.56x45mm standard ammunition produced for U.S. forces is designated M855.
Most, if not all, of the 7.62x39mm ammunition found today is of the upgraded M67 variety. This variety deleted the steel insert, shifting the center of gravity rearward, and allowing the projectile to destabilize (or yaw) at about 3.3 inches, nearly 6.7 inches earlier in tissue than the M43 round.[104] There is now relative parity between the wounding capacity of the M67 and the current M855 5.56x45mm round. However, there have been repeated and consistent reports of the M855's inability to wound effectively (i.e. fragment) when fired from the short barreled M4 carbine (even at close ranges).[21] The M4's 14.5" barrel length reduces muzzle velocity to about 2900 ft/s.[105] This reduced wounding ability is one reason that, despite the Army's transition to short-barrel M4's, the Marine Corps has decided to use the M16A4 with the 20″ barrel as the 5.56x45mm M855 is largely dependent upon high velocity in order to wound effectively.[21]
The US Army contended in 2003 that the lack of lethality of the 5.56x45mm was more a matter of perception than fact.[106][107] With good shot placement to the head and chest, the target was usually defeated without issue.[106] The majority of failures were the result of hitting the target in non-vital areas such as extremities.[106] However, a minority of failures occurred in spite of multiple hits to the chest.[106] A study in 2006 found that 20% of soldiers using the M4 Carbine wanted more lethality or stopping power.[37] In June 2010, the United States Army announced it began shipping its new 5.56mm lead-free Enhanced Performance Round, the M855A1, to active combat zones.[108] This upgrade is designed to maximize performance of the 5.56x45mm round, to improve penetration and to consistently fragment in soft-tissue when fired from the short-barreled M4 carbines and standard length M16s.[108]
During the 1970s the USSR developed the AK-74 and the 5.45x39mm cartridge, which has similar physical characteristics to the U.S. 5.56x45mm cartridge, although “it does not deform or fragment when striking soft tissues.”[109] A current AK-47 export variant, the AK-101, is chambered to fire the 5.56mm NATO cartridge.[110]
Additional firepower
All current M16 type rifles are capable of launching NATO STANAG type 22mm rifle grenades from their integral flash hiders without the use of an adapter. These 22mm grenade types range from powerful anti-tank rounds to simple finned tubes with a fragmentation hand grenade attached to the end. The "standard" type rifle grenade is propelled by a blank cartridge inserted into the chamber of the rifle. The "bullet trap" and "shoot through" types, as their names imply use live ammunition. The U.S. military does not generally use rifle grenades,[notes 2] however they are used by other nations. Most AK-47 type rifles are unable to launch rifle grenades or require a separate adapter attachment to do so.
The AK-47 can mount a (rarely used) cup-type grenade-launcher that fires standard RGD-5 Soviet hand-grenades. The soup-can shaped launcher is screwed onto to AK-47’s muzzle.[116] To fire…First, insert a standard RGD-5 hand-grenade into the launcher and then remove the safety pin…Second, insert a special blank cartridge into the rifles chamber…Third, place the butt-stock of the rifle on the ground and fire from this position. The maximum effective range is approximately 150 meters.[113] The M16 has a similar device used to launch tear-gas hand-grenades.[117]
All current model M16 and AK-47 rifles can mount under-barrel grenade-launchers such as the M203, M320 and AG36 in the case of the M16, and the GP-25, GP-30 & GP-34 for the AK-47. The M16 can also mount under-barrel 12 gauge shotguns such as KAC Masterkey or the M26 Modular Accessory Shotgun System.
All of these grenades, launchers and shotguns add additional bulk and weight to the soldiers war-load and as a result, they reduce the amount rifle ammunition that soldiers can carry. For example, a modern French AC58 "bullet trap" rifle grenade is 380mm long and weighs .5 kg (1.1 lb),[118] the equivalent of a loaded M16 magazine. An M203 grenade launcher adds 1.4 kg (3 lb) to an M16's weight[119] and 40x46mm High Explosive (HE) grenades weigh .24 kg (0.53 lb),[120] about half the weight of a loaded M16 magazine.
[edit]Accessories
Neither the AK-47 nor the M16 were designed to mount accessories, except of course for their respective bayonets and a simple clamp type bipod for the M16. However, with the advent of the Picatinny rail and by sheer happenstance, the M16 has proven itself to be a remarkably adaptable weapon system, capable of mounting a wide range of accessories,
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